常考的定义
1、语言的定义：
a. human speech
b. the ability to communicate by human speech
c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings d. the written representation of such a system
2、Design features (定义)：the feature that define our language can be called design feature.
3、语言的区别性特征（Design features ）
Arbitrariness（任意性）：Arbitrariness means that the forms of linguistic sings bear no natural relationship to their meaning.例子，在课本第4页 Duality (多重性）：参考书第21页 Creativity (创造性）：language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Displacement（移位性）：参考书第21页
4、语言的功能
Informative(informational ideational referential)信息功能：convey message and information Interpersonal(人际功能）例子：称呼（dear sir、Jonny）能够表明人的身份和立场，口音，方言For example,
the chanting of a crowd at a football match,
the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the stage-managed audience reactions to TV game shows They all signal who we are and where we belong.
Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; Performative(施为功能）：说话就是做事，可改变状态。（抱怨、请求、禁止）都是施为功能。常见的例子：结婚仪式、对囚徒的宣判、婴儿的洗礼、船只初次下水前的命名以及对敌人的诅咒。 For example, I now declare the meeting open. I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. Emotive（情感功能）：to express attitudes, feelings and emotions.能够左右听众的情绪。常见的例子：诅咒，说脏话，对艺术或美景发出的不自觉的感叹。God, My, Damn it,What a sight, Wow, Oh.!!!!
Phatic (寒暄功能）：refers to the social interaction 例子：“早上好”，“上帝保佑你”，“天气不错”。俚语、笑话、行语、礼节性相互问候。 Recreation（娱乐功能）：例子：婴儿的牙牙学语、赞美诗者的吟唱，对歌 Metalingual (元语言功能）用语言描述语言 Interrogative（疑问功能）：带有？的句子
4、Linguistics(言语）
The scientific study of human language Linguistics is a rich and exciting field.
It is an area with immense research potential and a scholarly “industry”. Linguistics now has a set of established theories, methods and sub-branches.
5、语言学的主要分类 ①phonetics(语音学）：Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. ②phonology(音系学）：Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Phoneme(音位）：phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that signal a difference in meaning).
③morphology（形态学）：It studies the minimal units of meaning-----morphemes and word--formation processes). ④syntax（句法学）：syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. ⑤Semantics (语义学）examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. semantic components denotation of words
sense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymy
sense relations between sentences such as entailment and presupposition and others.
⑥Pragmatics(语用学）is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.
In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.
⑦psycholinguistics(心理语言学）⑧sociolinguistics(社会语言学）⑨anthropological(人类语言学）-------宏观语言学
语言学的一些重要区分
1、描写与规定（descriptive vs. Prescriptive)
Don’t say X.(不要说X）-------prescriptive规定性
People do not say X.(人们不说X）-------descriptive 描写
2、共时与历时（synchronic vs. diachronic)参考书第19页 共时描写（synchronic description)把某一固定时间作为它的观察点。例子：《现代希腊语语法》 《莎士比亚英语结构》 历时描写（diachronic description)研究语言的历史变化。例子：Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.
3、语言与言语（langue vs. Parole)
Saussure(索绪尔）区分了langue and parole.
Chomsky(乔姆斯基）区分了语言能力（competence）和语言运用（performance) Langue refers to the linguistics competence of the speaker Parole refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.
Competence (语言能力）refers to the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. This
means a person's ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. It also includes a person's knowledge of what are sentences of a particular language. Chomsky made a distinction between competence and performance, which is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing.
Performance（语言运用）refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation. 注意：习题看老师ppt 后的课题，以及参考书的题。
第二章语音speech sound
一、常见的定义解释
1、phonetics(语音学）：studies how speech sounds are produced ,transmitted, and perceived. 2、Voiceless(清音）：when the vocal folds are apart ,the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. 3、Voiced (浊音）：when the vocal folds are close together ,the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced. 二、语音研究的方向
发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics） is the study of the production of speech sounds. 声学语音学（Acoustic Phonetics） is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.
听觉语音学（Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics） is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
三、国际音标
1、1897年国际语音协会（International phonetics association)建立
2、1888年第一版国际音标问世，2005最新版。The latest version was revised in 1993 and updated twice in 1996 and 2005。
四、Consonants（辅音）和 Vowel（元音）
1、定义：
Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.
Vowel is produced without obstruction of the air so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.
1、区别：The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
2、Consonants参考书第32页
①In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. ②辅音的分类：
发音部位（place of articulation）The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.
Bilabial (双唇音)：p b m w Labiodental (唇齿音): f v Dental (齿音): θ δ Alveolar (齿龈音):d t n l s z
Postalveolar(后齿龈音):∫з t∫ dз Palatal(腭音):英语中只有一个腭音：j Velar(软腭音): k g ŋ x Glottal(声门音):h
发音方式(manner of articulation) The manner of articulation refers to the ways in which articulation can be accomplished.
Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音):[p,b,t,d,k,g] Fricative(擦音):[f,v, θ,δ,s, z,∫,з,h] Approximant(通音):[w, r, j ] Nasal(鼻音）：[m n ŋ] Lateral(边音):[ l ] affricative(塞檫音):[dЗ t∫]
清辅音：／p／、／t／、／k／、／f／、／θ／、／s／、／W／、／t∫／、／ts／、／tr／，再加上／r／、／h／，合计12个。
浊辅音：／b／、／d／、／g／、／v／、／ð／、／z／、／T／、／dv／、／dz／、／dr／再加 上／m／、／n／、／N／、／l／、／j／、／w／合计16个。 3、Vowel
Vowel glides（元音音渡）: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality ① Diphthong(双元音）：a single movement of tongue ② Triphthong(三元音）：a double movement of tongue ③元音的分类
1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)
2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded) /i:/ high /ɪ/ high /e/ middle /æ/ low / ɜ:/ middle /ə/ middle / ʌ/ low /U:/ high /ʊ/ high /ɔ:/ middle /ɒ/ low /ɑ:/ low front front front front central central central back back back back back tense lax lax lax tense lax lax tense lax tense lax tense unrounded unrounded unrounded unrounded unrounded unrounded unrounded rounded rounded rounded rounded unrounded 四、音系学（phonology) 参考书第39页
Phonology：phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.
Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system. Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.
1、speech(语言）：Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.
2、Coarticulation(协同发音）：Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.
3、Anticipatory coarticolation(逆协同发音）：前面的字母受后面字母的影响If the sound becomes more like the following sound (lamb), it is known as anticipatory coarticulation . 例子：lamb can (字母 a 收到m n 的影响）
4、Perseverative coarticulation (重复性协同发音)后协同发音：If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound (map), it is perseverative coarticulation. 例子：map speak
5、Broad transcription(宽式音标）When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription.
narrow transcription(窄式音标）The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. 五、标音
1、Phoneme音位(音位学单位）：the smallest unit of sound in the language which can distinguish two words.
2、Phone音素（语音学单位）：individual sounds as they occur in speech. A phone is a phonetic unit.
3、Allophone:音位变体any of the different forms of a phoneme[p, ph] are two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution. (互补分布）例/α/音位有三个变体：(1)/a/ (2)/α/ (3)/A/
[p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are
said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context. 4、Phone 和phoneme的区别
①phone 是语音学的最小单位，phonemes是音位学的最小单位 ②phone音素------语言的自然属性-----可描述所有的语言 用[ ]标音 Phoneme音位----语言的社会属性-----只能是某种语言的音位 用 / /标音 ③phone 是具体的 phoneme抽象的 ④出现在speech中的是音素phone Phoneme 音位相当于数学中的集合 Phone 音素相当于数学中的元素 5、Minimal pair:(最小对立体):
Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word.
Two sound combinations identical in many ways except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.简单说来，最小对立体就是两个单词其他地方发音一样，除了在同一地方的发音不一样。Pill 和 bill 就是最小对立体 e.g. [t] and [d]: tin/din, tie/die [i:] and [i]: beat/bit, bead/bid
6、Minimal set最小对立集合：a group of sound combinations with the above features .eg: pill bill kill gill
By identifying the minimal pairs or the minimal set of a language .a phonologist can identify its phonemes.
7、In English, the distinction between aspirated [ph] and unaspirated [p] is not phonemic. 8、By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (//), while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ([ ]).
六、Allophones /allophonic variation（音位变体）参考书第42页
1、[p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.
In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context:
[p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.
2、Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.
3、Complementary distribution：The relationship between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in Complementary distribution. 七、Assimilation(同化) 1、同化的定义
Assimilation ：A process 标音which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. It is often used synony--mously with coarticulation.
2、同化分类;Nasalization(鼻音化）, dentalization（齿音化）, and velarization（颚音化） 具体分析：
① cap[kæp] can[kæn] 相对于cap中a ,can 中的a受到鼻音n的影响 既单词中一个读音受到鼻音m n 的影响就是鼻音化
② tent [tɜnt] tenth[tɜnθ] 相对于tent中的发音，因为tenth中有θ，故被齿音化。 音节中有齿音θ δ一般是齿音化
③ since [sins] sink [siŋk] n在软腭音k前转化成软腭音ŋ
3、Regressive assimilation (逆同化）：If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.
progressive assimilation(顺同化）：The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. 同化例子参考书第44页 发音区别性特征参考书第48页
第三章词汇lexicon
一、Word
1、Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether spoken or Written
2、Three senses of “word”:A physically definable unit: Word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between tow pauses or blanks. Phonological and orthographic(书写上) 3、Lexeme(词位): the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts Write---write, writes, wrote, writing, written Fat---fat, fatter, fattest
4、A grammatical unit: 参考书61页 sentence
MorphologyInflectionalMorphologyDerivational/LexicalMorphologyclause phrase word morpheme Each of these is called a RANK. All the ranks constitute a hierarchical scale. 5、Identification of words（features） Stability :the constituent parts of a complex word cannot be rearranged Relative uninterruptibility: New elements cannot be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. A minimum free form: Leonard Bloomfield(1933): Sentence: the maximum free form Word: the minimum free form the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself grammatical unit 5、Word formation ①Inflection（曲折） the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness(有定性), aspect(体)and case（格), which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. ②compound（合成） Compound: those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, the way to join two separate words to produce a single form icecream, sunrise, paperbag, cloakroom, cupboard, drugstore, railway, jackknife, lap-top In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes. ③Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes. Derivations can make the word class of the original either changed or unchanged. 注意：In english ,there is usually one productive inflectional affix, but multiple derivational affixes. 合成词的分类 Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound (向心复合词) N+、、、、、 the exocentric compound(离心复合词) V+、、、、、 ①、Endocentric:
One element serves as the head. The head is derived from a verb.
It is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. The first member is a participant of the process verb.
Nominal endocentric compound: (a relationship of “a kind of something”) self-control, pain-killer, core meaning, foot-warmer Adjectival endocentric compound: eye-entertaining, bullet-resistant,
virus-sensitive, machine washable, sun-tanned
②、Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something” exocentric noun compounds:
scarecrow, playboy, cutthroat, get-together, sit-down, breakthrough, run-up exocentric adjective compounds:
takehome, breakneck, come-hither, beat-up, runaway, walk-in
Ways of writing a compound: Solid Compounds can be written as a single word: wardrobe, bodyguard, seashore.
Hyphenated:They can also be joined with a hyphen: wedding-ring, traffic-light, simple-minded. Open: Some can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts: washing machine, traffic island, counter revolutionary.
Free variation: businessman, business-man, business man
6、Lexical change 书本第65页
1) Invention(新创词语): Kodak, Coke, nylon,
2) Blending(混成法): transfer+resistor>transistor smoke+fog>smog 3) Abbreviation (缩写词): Clipping(截断法) Fore-clippings: (ham)burger
Back-clippings: ad(vertisement)
Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive). 4) Acronym (缩写词): CIA --- Central Intelligence Agency
5) Back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word formation by which a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language gangling → gangle editor → edit peddler → peddle
6) Analogical creation (类推构词): It can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. From irregular to regular:work: wrought > worked
7) Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages
8、 词的分类
1）Variable vs. invariable words: Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats
Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.
2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words: Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns
Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
The lexical words carry the main content of a language (content words) and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a sentence together (function words). 3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words: Grammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words
Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.
Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. 4) Word class:
It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.
Nine word classes are established: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article.
二、语素，词根，词缀等
1、The components of a word are known as morphemes.They themselves cannot be further analyzed.
2、Morpheme（语素）: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Morphology（形态学） studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
3、 Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)
Free morphemes: those which may occur alone, i.e. those which may constitute words by themselves dog, nation, close All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur alone distempered: dis-, temper, -ed 4、 Root, affix & stem(词根、词缀和词干)
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound.
e.g. black (black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith). -ceive ( receive, perceive, conceive); -mit (remit, permit, commit, submit); -tain ( retain, contain, maintain); -cur( incur, recur, occur) An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affix is naturally bound.
A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix(屈折词缀) can be added.
Friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships
5、 Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀) Some differences between them:
First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes: they very often only add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem toys, walks, John’s. They serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme.
In contrast derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. e.g. cite, citation; generate, generation
Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as small-smallness, brother-brotherhood.
Third, whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence.
In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. drums, walks, Mary’s
Derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.
第四章from word to text
一、syntax句法的定义
Syntax （句法）is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
二、Syntactic relations（句法关系）
Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds:relations of position relations of substitutability relations of co-occurrence 1、位置关系（relations of position/word order）
①Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
②Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系） observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations（水平关系）or simply Chain Relations（链状关系）
SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. 2、Relation of Substitutability （替换关系）
The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. The ______ smiles.
man
boy girl
Relation of Substitutability is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）
To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations. 3、Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系）
It means that words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.
三、Grammatical construction and its constituents 语法结构以及成分
1、定义：GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION （语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. 2、句法结构分类
①The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
②The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”. 四、Immediate Constituents(直接成分)
1、Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction.
2、To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法) the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached
3、Word-level Phrasal
N= noun NP=noun phrase A=adjective AP=adjective phrase V=verb VP=verb phrase P=preposition PP=preposition phrase Det=determiner Adv=adverb Conj=conjunction
S=sentence or Qual
seldom almost Aux助动词：is to
Deg程度词：
CP补语（that what 引导的从句）
clause
（qualifier）限定语：often always
can may must did have to has quite very so more
五、Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心结构和离心结构)
1、ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分（单个词或词组）相同或相似，这个词组是整体的核心或中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构 。
Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases (the three small children), verb phrases (will have been leaving), adjective phrases (really very late).
2、EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase,
the predicate (verb + object) construction, the connective (be + complement) construction. 六、Coordination and Subordination 参考书104
Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination Subordination
1、Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .
2、Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. 七、关于句法功能(期末考试大题）
The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
Subject 、predicate、object、phrase 、clause、sentence定义在书本81页、参考书107页 1、Subject in some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.
In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent. but is clearly wrong in the following examples: John was bitten by a dog.
John underwent major heart surgery.
In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).
All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.
The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject. What characteristics do subjects have? Word order Pro-forms Agreement with verb Content questions Tag questions 2、Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject. The boy is running. (process) Peter broke the glass. (action) Jane must be mad! (state)
The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.
3、object Traditionally, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object. Mother bought a doll. Mother gave my sister a doll.
In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case (与格) for indirect object.
In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and
preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). Mother gave a doll to my sister. John kicked me.
Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice. He died last week.
The match lasted three hours.
He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)
4、Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural,(单数，双数，复数) etc.
5、The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
6、PHRASE is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.
7、Clause A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a CLAUSE.
Clause can also be classified into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the latter including the traditional infinitive phrase, participial phrase, and gerundial phrase. A finite clause（限定性分句） has a finite verb. A finite verb has tense. E.g.: “I run daily.”
A non-finite clause（非限定性分句） has a verb without tense. E.g.: \"...to run daily...\" 8、Sentence：分类参考书144
八、
1、Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent ehaving the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining （连接）and embedding（嵌入）, hypotactic（从属关系） and paratactic（并列关系）
2、Embedding refers to the process by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination. 3、Conjoining refers to the process by which one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.
4、Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.
Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices衔接手段:
Conjunction连词 Ellipsis省略 Lexical collocation词汇搭配 Lexical repetition词汇复现 Reference指称 Substitution, etc. 替代
第五章 Meaning
一、定义
Linguistic semantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular
二、meaning of meaning Seven types of meaning:书本94页
Conceptual meaning（referential meaning or denotation or cognitive meaning) Connotative meaning Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaning
1、Conceptual meaning Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.
2、Connotative meaning The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.
Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.
3、Social meaning What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. 例如：Dialect Time Province Status
4、Reflected meaning Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. Many taboo terms are result of this.（禁忌语） 三、指称reference
1、The referential theory:The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. 2、the semantic triangle 语义三角书本96页。参考书130页 Words→Concepts→Things
Ogden and Richards argue that the relation between a word and a thong it refers to is not direct 。It is mediated by concept. 3、sense 和 reference 的区别
①Every word has a sense, i. e. some conceptual content. But not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything.
②Linguistic formes having the same sense may have different references in different situations . 例如：I have a dog.和he has a dog. 中的dog都是狗的意思，但不是同一只狗。 ③have same references may not have the same meaning .\\ Eg: morning star evening star
4、Sense refers to the main features, the defining properties an entity has.
The sense of desk: a piece of furniture with a flap top and four legs, at which one reads and writes Sense is equivalent to concept. The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk. Reference: the concrete entities 5、sense(定义）参考书154 6、Reference（定义）参考书154 四、sense relation参考书133 1、synonymy 同义关系 2、Antonymy 反义关系
①gradable antonymy 等级反义 例子：good和bad 两词中间可以有不好不坏 Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very. Can have comparative forms. Can be asked with how.
②complementary antonymy互补反义例子如alive dead不是活就是死，只有两个层面 ③converse antonymy 反向反义 buy 和 sell , smaller 和bigger（形容词比较级形式属于反向反义）
3、Hyponymy 上下义关系 A is included in / a kind of B. 例如: chair and furniture, rose and flower
Superordinate/hypernym: the more general term上义词 Hyponym: the more specific term下义词 Co-hyponyms: members of the same class
第八单元
1、The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example； （A） The dog bit the man. （B） The man bit the dog.
If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components， then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.
As we know， there are two aspects to sentence meaning： grammatical mean-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （A） are different
from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （B）. The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.
2、Pragmatics is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts in which they are used. Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.
Sentence Meaning It is the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition. 3、
Utterance Meaning It is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence. 4、Performative verbs 施为动词：
promise, order, ask, propose, state, suggest, tell, warn, report, request
施为句：Performatives: The utterance of a sentence is the doing of an action. I name the ship the Queen Elizabeth. I bequeath my watch to my brother.
I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow. I promise to finish it in time. I apologize.
I declare the meeting open.
I warn you that the bull will charge.
它们的特点在于不只是言有所述，而且是言有所为。 5、Cooperative principle(CP ):
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Maxims of CP:
QUANTITY 数量准则 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QUALITY 质量准则
Try to make your contribution one that is true. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. RELATION 关联准则 Be relevant.
MANNER 方式准则 Be perspicuous.
1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief. 4. Be orderly.
Violation of the maxims
1) Violation of the Maxim of Quantity A: What are you reading? B: A book. A: Do you know where Dr. Townsend lives?
B: Somewhere in the southern surburbs of the city. (said when it is known to both A and B that B has Dr. Townsend’s address)
2)Violation of the Maxim of Quality
A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?
B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.(said when it is known to both A and B that B is feeling perfectly well)
Student:Beirut (贝鲁特，黎巴内首都）is in Peru（秘鲁）, isn’t it, teacher? Teacher:And Rome is in Romania, I suppose. 3) Violation of the Maxim of Relevance A: What time is it?
B: Well, the paper’s already come.
A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think? B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?
A: What do you think of the lecture? B: He’s a good cook.
4) Violation of the Maxim of Manner A: Let’s stop and get something to eat. B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.
违反了方式准则里的Avoid obscurity of expression.
A: What did your sister buy at Sears yesterday?
B: She bought a red dress, she bought a green dress, and she bought a blue dress. 违反了方式准则里的 Be brief.
speech act theory.
1、LOCUTIONARY ACT (发话行为)(叙事行为)为了叙述某事而说出话语,称“言之发”.
2、ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE(行事语力) is equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning(言外之意).在说出话语时不仅叙述某件事,而且做出了某件事,称“示言外之力”
3、This act which is performed through a locutionary act is called a PERLOCUTIONARY ACT(取效行为). (成事行为)
期末考试的要点
1、Language acquisition: the learning and development of a person’s language. The learning of a native or first language is called first language acquisition, and of a second or foreign language, second language acquisition. The term “acquisition” is often preferred to “learning” because the latter is sometimes linked to a behaviourist theory of learning. Language acquisition is studied by linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to enable them to understand the processes used in learning a language, to help identify stages in the devolopmental process, and to give a better
understanding of the nature of language. Techniques used include longitudinal studies(纵贯研究) of language learners as well as experimental approaches, and focus on the study of the development of phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and communicative competence.
2、Error（错误）:(in the speech or writing of a secon or foreign language learner) the use of a linguistic item(e.g. a word, a grammatical item, a speech act,etc.) in a way which a fluent or native speaker of the language regards as showing faulty or incomplete learning. A distinction is sometimes made between an error, which results from incomplete knowedge, and a mistake(语误) made by a learner when writing or speaking and which is caused by lack of attention, fatigue,carelessness, or some other aspect of performance. Errors are sometimes classified according to vocabulary(lexical error) , pronunciation(phonological error), grammar(syntactic error), misunderstanding of a speaker’s intention or meaning(interpretive error), production of the wrong communciative effect, e.g. through the faulty use of a speech act or one of the rules of speaking(pragmatic error).
3、1) I like your house very much. （interpersonal） 2) I now declare the meeting closed. (performative) 3) Nice to meet you. (phatic communion)
4) I met Mary in the library this morning. (informative)
4、“Hi，你好呀！This morning，我们对你的case进行了discuss，我们发现，这对我们没什么benefit。所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你：与这件事相关的所有Project都将被cancel掉。”（答案适合于所有夹杂英汉语言这一类型的题）
This phenomenon is called Code-Switching between Chinese and English.
Code-Switching: Bilinguals often switch between their two languages in the middle of a conversation.
Two types: inter-sentential switching, intra-sentential switching .Inter-sentential code-switching means that the switching takes place between two independent sentences or clauses. The two sentences or clauses are in two different languages or different language varieties. Intra-sentential code-switching means that the switching takes place inside or in the middle of the same sentence or clause.
Code-switching’s function ① make it easy for people to understand ②it also shows a sense of humor ③Convenience
5、有一个大题会是：一个人曾说complementary antonymy 与 gradable antonymy 没有绝对的区别。
It is not advisable to tell beginner of linguistics to distinguish the complementary antonymy and gradable antonymy.
Relative 参考书135页
6、判断题
Error ------incomplete knowledge
Mistake -----performance lack of attention
7、communicative competence包含四个方面
Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.
8、NO matter how a dog barks ,it cantnot tell you about its parents. This phenomenon is called displacement.
Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Language can be used to refer to things that are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e., in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop.
9、关于违反合作原则语言现象答题规范 例子：A: Do you know where Dr. Townsend lives? B: Somewhere in the southern surburbs of the city.
This phenomenon is the Violation of the Maxim of Quantity( Make your contribution as informative as is required)in CP.
CP:Cooperative principle was proposed by Paul Grice. It suggests that in making conversations the participants must be willing to co-operate, otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry on the conversation.There four Maxims.
According to the dialogue above . B does not provide enough information—the specific address where where Dr. Townsend lives.
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